ENGLISH LANGUAGE GRAMMAR - Correct English Writing & Speaking

English Speaking & Writing Topic: CAPITALIZATION

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

3.1. Introduction

"It is impossible to give rules that will cover every conceivable problem in capitalization" (G.P.O. 1984).
Actually, what is capitalized is mostly a matter of editorial style and preference rather than a matter of generally
accepted rules. In addition, although there is a clearly recognized rule requiring capitalization of proper nouns and
adjectives, opinions differ concerning what a proper noun is.

First we should define terms used when discussing capitalization:

        Full caps means that every letter in an expression is capital, LIKE THIS
        Caps & lc means that the principal words of an expression are capitalized, Like This
        Caps and small caps refers to a particular font of type containing small capital letters instead of lowercase
        letters

Elements in a document such as headings, titles, and captions may be capitalized in either sentence style or
headline style:

        Sentence style calls for capitalization of the first letter, and proper nouns of course.
        Headline style calls for capitalization of all principal words (also called caps & lc).

Modern publishers tend toward a down style of capitalization, that is, toward use of fewer capitals, rather than an
up style (Chicago Press 1982).

This chapter presents guidelines and Langley editorial preference for capitalization. There is so much difference of
opinion among authorities as well as individuals concerning proper nouns and adjectives that total consistency
among editors and authors is impossible. The important goal should be consistency within a particular document.
The next three sections deal with the more clear-cut uses for capitalization; the last section deals with the most
difficult area, proper nouns and adjectives.


3.2. Sentence Style Capitalization

It is second nature for us to capitalize the beginnings of such things as sentences, quotations, and captions. Rules
hardly need to be expressed to cover these areas; however this section briefly addresses them and indicates
Langley's preferred style.


3.2.1. Sentences
The first word in a sentence is ordinarily capitalized.

· A sentence enclosed in parentheses within another sentence does not begin with a capital:

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

       In applying the foregoing approach to a tetrahedral grid (the tetrahedral grid was chosen because
       of its attractive features for space construction), a typical repeating element is first isolated from
       the grid.

However, a parenthesized sentence that does not stand within another sentence begins with a capital:

       The foregoing approach is now applied to a tetrahedral grid. (The tetrahedral grid was chosen
       because of its attractive features for space construction.) A typical repeating element is first
       isolated from the grid.

· In the rare instances that fragment sentences may appear in a document, they should begin with a capital:

 Wrong                  Can system identification procedures be applied to statically
                        unstable aircraft? if so, to which aircraft?
 Correct                Can system identification procedures be applied to statically
                        unstable aircraft? If so, to which aircraft?


· The first word after a colon may be capitalized when the capital begins a complete sentence; however,
capitalization of a complete sentence after a colon is optional:

 Correct                The toughness of pseudo-maraging steel degrades at
                        cryogenic temperatures: At -320°F, its Charpy impact
                        energy is 6 ft-lb.
 Equally correct        The toughness of pseudo-maraging steel degrades at
                        cryogenic temperatures: at -320°F, its Charpy impact energy
                        is 6 ft-lb.

3.2.2. Quotations
The beginning of quoted material is capitalized as follows:

· A direct quotation that is not syntactically joined to the rest of the sentence (often set off by commas) begins with
a capital, even if the initial letter is not capital in the source (Chicago Press 1982; and Skillin et al. 1974):

       In the law establishing the NACA, Congress states: "It shall be the duty of the Advisory
       Committee for Aeronautics to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight
       with a view to their practical solution."

When the quote is syntactically dependent on the rest of the sentence, it begins with a lowercase letter, even if the
initial letter is capital in the source:

       Congress established the NACA in 1915 "to supervise and direct the scientific study of the
       problems of flight with a view to their practical solution."

When ellipsis points in a quotation follow a period (that is, four dots), the first word of the sentence following the
ellipsis may be capitalized, even if it is not capital in the source:

       "The airplane then accelerated to a Mach number of 0.98. . . . The needle of the Mach meter took
       an abrupt jump past M = 1.0."

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

3.2.3. Questions
When a direct question occurs within a sentence, the author may or may not choose to capitalize the first word of
the question:

 Correct                The question addressed by this research project is, What
                        system identification procedure should be used for a
                        statically unstable aircraft?
 Equally correct        The question addressed by this research project is, what
                        system identification procedure should be used for a
                        statically unstable aircraft?


Of course, an indirect question is never capitalized:

        This research project addresses what system identification procedure should be used for statically
        unstable aircraft.

3.2.4. Lists
Items in a displayed list should begin with a capital whether they are complete sentences or not:

        The purposes of this report are

           1.   To evaluate the performance of the instruments
           2.   To expand the data base

        We can define the requirements of the power converter as follows:

           1.   Energy conversion should be high.
           2.   Efficiency should be independent of laser wavelength.

        Support systems for the facility supply the following:

           1.   Air--The 600-psi system can deliver a flow rate of 300 lb/sec for 3 min.
           2.   Cooling water--The closed-loop system delivers 450 gal/min at 550 psig.
                Gaseous propellants--Hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are supplied from 60 000-ft3 tube trailers
           3.
                at 2400 psia.

Skillin et al. (1974) indicate that capitalizing nonsentence displayed items is optional, but we prefer the capitals.
When lists are not displayed, the items are, of course, not capitalized:

        The purposes of this report are (1) to evaluate the performance of the instruments and (2) to
        expand the data base.

3.2.5. Stylistic Uses for Sentence Style Capitalization
Nonsentence elements, such as table entries, captions, or footnotes, are often capitalized as a matter of style. The
following elements are capitalized in sentence style in Langley reports:

· Run-in headings

· Table subtitles, headnotes, boxheads, and entries consisting of words, phrases, or sentences

· Footnotes to either the text or a table

· Figure captions:

        Figure 1. Three-view sketch of the research aircraft. Dimensions are in inches.

        Figure 1. Computing scheme for algorithm.

        Figure 1. Concluded.

· Figure labels (we prefer initial cap over full caps or caps & lc for labels in figures)

· A word or phrase appearing in a symbolic expression:

                                                 Cm = Pitching moment/qS

3.3. Headline Style Capitalization

Headline style calls for all principal words to be capitalized (also called caps & lc). Unfortunately authorities
differ widely on what words are principal. Langley rules for headline style capitalization are based on the G.P.O.
(1984) and are as follows:

· Do not capitalize the articles a, an, and the; the prepositions or adverbs at, by, for, of, in, up, on, and to; and
the conjunctions and, as, but, if, or, and nor. In effect, this rule means that words of four or more letters are
considered principal words and are capitalized.

· Capitalize the first and last words:

                                         Procedure After All Questionnaires Are In

· Capitalize both elements of a two-element hyphenated compound word except the second element of a
compound numeral:

                                            Application of the Pin Level Stuck-At
                                               Fault Model to VLSI Circuits

                               Vapor-Screen Systems for In-Flight Flow Visualization

                                               Evaluation of Twenty-one
                                         High-Resolution Graphics Work Stations

· In a hyphenated phrase of three or more words, the first element and other elements that are principal words are
capitalized (Skillin et al. 1974):

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

                                          Drag-Due-to-Lift Measurements
                                             for a High-Speed Fighter

· If a normally lowercase short word is used parallel with a capitalized word of like significance, the short word
should be capitalized:

                                    Carbon-Fiber Risk In and Around Airports

· Capitalize the infinitive to (note that some authorities, for example, Chicago Press 1982, recommend lowercase
for the infinitive):

                              Grain-Refining Heat Treatments To Improve Cryogenic
                                       Toughness of High-Strength Steels

                                        Grain-Refining Heat Treatments
                                     Resulting in Improvements to Cryogenic
                                       Toughness of High-Strength Steels

· Normally lowercase abbreviations should always be left lowercase, particularly abbreviations for units of
measure:

                                      Toughness of 1-ft by 1.5-ft Specimens

                                      Toughness of 0.5-cm-Thick Specimens

                                  Noise Exposure From 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.

But

                                        Flow Visualization in the 0.3-Meter
                                           Transonic Cryogenic Tunnel

· Headline style capitalization is used for proper nouns (see section 4.5).

As a matter of preferred style, the following elements are capitalized in headline style in Langley reports:

· Displayed (not run-in) headings

· Table titles:

                                       Table IV. Test Results for HP-9-4-20

                                                Table IV. Concluded

3.4. Acronyms and Abbreviations

Before beginning a discussion of capitalization of abbreviations and acronyms, the two must be clearly
distinguished. An abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or phrase and is often followed by a period, for
example, c.o.d., ft-lb, St.,or publ. Abbreviations usually have become standard so that their form can be looked
up in a reference book. Acronyms, on the other hand, are "words formed from the initial letters of successive
parts of a term" (Skillin et al. 1974), for example, NASA, NASTRAN, STIF, NASP. They never contain
periods and are often not standard, so that definition is required.

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

3.3.1. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning With Acronyms
Acronyms are always formed with capital letters. A few words have crept into our language which were initially
acronyms, for example, laser and radar. But generally acronyms remain in full caps.

Acronyms are often coined for a particular program or study and therefore require definition. The letters of the
acronym are not capitalized in the definition unless the acronym stands for a proper name:

                        The best electronic publishing systems combine What You
 Wrong
                        See Is What You Get (WYSIWIG) features with the power
                        of noninteractive text formatters.
                        The best electronic publishing systems combine what you
 Correct
                        see is what you get (WYSIWIG) features with the power of
                        noninteractive text formatters.
                        Langley is involved with the National Aero-Space Plane
 But
                        (NASP) Program.


Nor is it usually necessary to indicate, for example, with italics, which letters are used in the acronym.

3.3.2. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning of Abbreviations
"In general, an abbreviation follows the capitalization ... of the word or words abbreviated" (G.P.O. 1984). The
best way to determine the form of an unfamiliar abbreviation is to consult a reference, for example,

       Webster's Collegiate or Unabridged Dictionary
       G.P.O. Style Manual

In material such as titles or headings in which principal words are capitalized (caps & lc), normally lowercase
abbreviations should always be left lowercase, particularly abbreviations for units of measure:

                                      Toughness of 1-ft by 1.5-ft Specimens

                                      Toughness of 0.5-cm-Thick Specimens

                                  Noise Exposure From 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.


4.5 Proper Nouns and Adjectives

As mentioned in the Introduction to this chapter, there is a clearly recognized rule requiring capitalization of
proper nouns and adjectives. The problem is that no one agrees on exactly what constitutes a proper noun. Proper
nouns are defined as "the name of a particular person, place, or thing." Thus, the names of such things as
organizations, political divisions, calendar divisions, and historic events and holidays are capitalized just as
personal names and geographic names are.

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

Whether or not a particular word or phrase is a proper noun is often a matter of opinion. Langley follows the
current trend and prefers a down style, that is, fewer capitals. The following sections provide guidelines; if
difficulty arises over a particular noun, consult references such as a dictionary, Skillin et al. (1974), G.P.O.
(1984), or Chicago Press (1982).

· In general, proper nouns and derivatives of proper nouns used in a proper sense are capitalized:

        Italy                                       Italian
        Rome                                        Roman (of Rome)
        Alps                                        Alpine
        Newton                                      Newtonian


· However, derivatives of proper nouns that have acquired an independent meaning are not capitalized:

        roman (numeral)                             pascal (the unit)
        pasteurize                                  italicize


"Defining the distinction between proper adjectives with a proper meaning and derivatives ... with a common
meaning is sometimes difficult" (Skillin et al. 1974):

        Coulomb's Law                               20 coulombs
        G. B. Venturi                               venturi tube
        Gauss' equation                             Gaussian distribution
        Euclidean algorithm                         euclidean geometry


The dictionary is a good reference for guidance in this matter, but is not always definitive. For example, in
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, euclidean geometry has the label "often cap E," which means that "it
is as acceptable with an uppercase initial as it is with one in lowercase." Thus, usage in the given field and author
preference should prevail.

· A common noun in a proper name is capitalized, but not when used alone:

       The experimental investigation was conducted in the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Tunnel. This
       single-return tunnel has continuous air exchange.

However, when a common noun alone becomes a well-known short from for the proper name, it is capitalized:

       United States, the States
       U.S. Army, the Army
       President of the United States, the President

· The plural form in a proper name is capitalized (G.P.O. 1984):

       Seventh and Ninth Streets
       Lakes Eerie and Ontario
       Langley 16-Foot and 30- by 60-Foot Tunnels

· A common noun used with a number or letter for purposes of designation is not capitalized (G.P.O. 1984):

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

         chapter 4                                   part I
         figure 1                                    reference 25
         case 8                                      run 234


· Only when the word the is part of an official name is it capitalized:

        The College of William and Mary
        the National Aeronautics and Space Administration



3.5.1. Personal Names and Titles
Rarely is there any question concerning capitalization of personal names.

· In foreign names, particles such as d', de, du, and von are capitalized unless preceded by a forename or title:

         E. I. du Pont                               Du Pont
         Theodore von Karman                         Von Karman Institute


· Remember that a personal name that is used in a common sense is no longer capitalized:

        the units curie, watt, newton, and kelvin

But

        degree Celsius
        degree Rankine
        degree Fahrenheit

· Civil and professional titles are capitalized when they precede a personal name as part of the name (Chicago
Press 1982):

        President Reagan
        Director Petersen
        Chief Scientist Barnwell
        Engineer-in-Charge Reid

Such titles are not capitalized in apposition however:

        the chief scientist, Richard Barnwell
        the chief of Materials Division, Darrel Tenney

· Civil and professional titles following or in place of a personal name are rarely capitalized (Chicago Press 1982):

        Richard Petersen, director of Langley Research Center; the director

        A. J. Hansbrough, chief of the Research Information and Applications Division; the division chief

        Perry Deal, chief test pilot

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

       Richard A. Culpepper, test director; the test director

But, to indicate distinction, a common noun title after a name is capitalized (G.P.O. 1984):

       Ronald Reagan, President of the United States

· In a document to a very specific audience, a common noun used as part of or in place of a personal name may be
capitalized (Skillin et al. 1974). Thus, in a Langley memo, letter, or internal document, such titles as Director,
Associate Director, Division Chief, and Branch Head may be capitalized.


3.5.2. Geographic Names
The names of particular regions, localities, countries, and geographic features are capitalized:

· Names of geographic features

        Northern Hemisphere                         Southern Hemisphere
        Arctic Circle                               North Pole
        Equator                                     Tropic of Cancer


But

        equatorial                                  the tropics
        polar region                                Tropic of Cancer


· Names of regions and localities

        Middle East                                 Southeast Asia
        Gulf States6                                North Atlantic States6
        Great Plains                                Corn Belt
        North and South (Civil War Period)


But

        western Virginia                            northern manufacturers
        eastern Gulf states                         northern Michigan


Directions of the compass are capitalized only as a part of a name that has been established by usage to designate
particular regions.

These are two examples of the divisions of the United States that are used by the Bureau of Census; see G.P.O.
(1984) for a complete listing.

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

· Names of rivers, mountains, bays, and cities

         James River                                San Francisco Bay
         Mount Everest                              Del Marva Peninsula
         New York City                              Lake Michigan

But

       The satellite orbit often crossed the Sahara Desert. In parts of this desert, seasonal transitions
       occur between desert and vegetated land.

When generic terms such as lake, city, and river are used to refer to a specific place, they are still lowercase
except in a few established instances:

       the Canal (Panama Canal)
       the Channel (English Channel)


3.5.3. Administrative Names
Official designations of political divisions and of other organized bodies are capitalized:

· Names of political divisions

         Canada                                     United States
         New York State                             Ontario Province
         Northwest Territories                      Virgin Islands


· Names of governmental units

       U.S. Government
       Executive Department
       U.S. Congress
       Environmental Protection Agency
       U.S. Army
       U.S. Navy
       Technical Editing Branch

But

       naval power
       the government
       congressional committee

· Names of organizations and their members

       Democratic Party, Catholic Church
       a Democrat, a Catholic (members)
       Democratic administration, Catholic doctrine
       Society of Automotive Engineers

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

But

       democratic government (a democracy)
       catholicity (character of being liberal)



3.5.4. Names of Public Places and Institutions
The proper names of public places, facilities, and structures are capitalized:

       White House
       Langley Research Center
       National Transonic Facility
       H. J. E. Reid Auditorium

But

       building 1195B

· The names of permanent research facilities at Langley Research Center (and other institutions) are capitalized,
but not temporary (that is, not officially permanent) apparatuses and facilities:

       Permanent

       Langley Aircraft Landing Dynamics Facility
       Langley 55-Foot Vacuum Chamber

       Temporary

       neutron generator at the Langley Research Center
       outdoor anechoic test apparatus at the Langley Research Center



3.5.5. Calendar and Time Designations
Various holidays, historic events, and other time designations are capitalized:

· Names of months and days of the week

         January                                    December
         Sunday                                     Thursday


But seasons are not capitalized:

         fall                                       spring


· Historic events

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

        Revolutionary War                           Sputnik Crisis
        Renaissance                                 Louisiana Purchase


· Holidays

        Veterans Day                                Memorial Day
        Thanksgiving                                Presidents' Day


· Time zones are not capitalized:

       eastern standard time
       mountain daylight time
       noon

But

       Greenwich mean time
       Pacific standard time


3.5.6. Scientific Names
In several scientific disciplines, there are conventions for capitalization of names, for example, the names of
celestial bodies in astronomy and the names of soil groups in geology.

· Geologic names

       Upper Cambrian Period, Bronze Age (geologic periods)
       Laterite, Tundra (soil groups)

· Names of celestial bodies

       North Star, Halley's Comet
       Venus, Earth (the planet)
       the Sun, the Moon (Earth's)

But

        earth (the ground)                          moons of Jupiter


· Biological names

       Arthropoda (phylum)
       Crustacea (class)
       Hypoparia (order)
       Agnostidae (family)
       Agnostus (genus)

But

Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning

        canadensis (species)

Consult CBE (1978) or other specialized references for details of capitalization of biological names.



3.5.7. Titles of Works
Titles of written and artistic works are capitalized.

· Historic documents

        Declaration of Independence
        Treaty of Paris

· Titles of documents, essays, and articles

        Slater, Philip N. 1980: Remote Sensing--Optics and Optical Systems. Addison-Wesley Publ. Co.,
        Inc.

        Elterman, L. 1970: Vertical-Attenuation Model With Eight Surface Meteorological Ranges From 2
        to 14 Kilometers. AFCRL-70-0200, U.S. Air Force, Mar. (Available from DTIC as AD 707
        488.)

        Bowker, D. E.; Davis, R. E.; Von Ofenheim, W. H. C.; and Myrick, D. L. 1983: Estimation of
        Spectral Reflectance Signatures From Spectral Radiance Profiles. Proceedings of the Seventeenth
        International Symposium on Remote Sensing of the Environment, Volume II, Environmental
        Research Inst. of Michigan, pp. 795-814.

        Allen, William A.; and Richardson, Arthur J. 1968: Interaction of Light With a Plant Canopy. J.
        Opt. Soc. America, vol. 58, no. 8, Aug., pp. 1923-1928.

Note that a down style of capitalization for titles (Chicago Press 1982) is recommended by some publishers. We
prefer an up style.

· Names of computer programs that are published (for example, in COSMIC):

        Optimal Regulator Algorithms for the Control of Linear Systems (ORACLS)
        Interaction of Structures, Aerodynamics, and Controls (ISAC)
        Aircarft Noise Prediction Program (ANOPP)

But

        extended least squares algorithm (module of ISAC)
        optimization algorithm (in ORACLS)

· Public laws

        Freedom of Information Act
        Executive Order No. 24
        Public Law 271

· Works of art and music

        Blue Boy, Whistler's Mother
        Star Spangled Banner
        
Chapter 3. Capitalization - English Language Grammar - Perfect English Speaking & Writing Learning
       

3.5.8. Miscellaneous Names
The following are additional types of proper names:

· Races and tribes

        Asian                                    Caucasian
        Nordic                                   Cherokee


· Trade names

        Kevlar                                   Macintosh
        Xerox                                    Plexiglas


Note: To protect the owners of trade names, they should be used only as adjectives. Also, NASA's policy is to
list the owner of a trade name, if the trade name is given at all.

· Official names of research missions, programs, and vehicles

       Project Mercury
       Space Shuttle
       Aircraft Energy Efficiency Program
       Apollo 12
       Space Station Freedom

But

       a space shuttle (generic sense)
       Space Shuttle orbiter and external tank
       Langley basic research program (not official name)
       space station (generic sense)