ENGLISH LANGUAGE GRAMMAR - PARTS OF SPEECH

THE INFINITIVE

THE INFINITIVE - FUNCTION
The most common uses of the infinitive are:

To indicate the purpose or intention of an action
(where the 'to' has the same meaning as 'in order to' or
'so as to'):


• She's gone to collect her pay cheque.

• The three bears went into the forest to find firewood.

As the subject of the sentence:

• To be or not to be, that is the question.

• To know her is to love her.

• (Note: this is more common in written English than spoken)

With nouns or pronouns, to indicate what something
can be used for, or what is to be done with it:

• Would you like something to drink?

• I haven't anything to wear.

• The children need a garden to play in.

After adjectives in these patterns:

It is + adjective +to-infinitive

• It is good to talk

It is + adjective + infinitive + for someone + to- infinitive.
        It is hard for elephants to see mice
        It is + adjective + infintive + of someone + to- infinitive.
        It is unkind of her to say that.

After an adjective + noun when a comment or judgement is being made:

• It was a stupid place to park the car.

• This is the right thing to do.

• It was an astonishing way to behave.

With too and enough in these patterns:

too much/many (+ noun) + to-infinitive

There's too much sugar to put in this bowl.
I had too many books to carry.

too + adjective + to-infinitive
This soup is too hot to eat.
She was too tired to work.

too + adverb + to-infinitive
He arrived too late to see the actors.

enough (+ noun) + to-infinitive
I've had enough (food) to eat.

adjective + enough + to-infinitive
She's old enough to make up her own mind.

not enough (+noun) + to-infinitive
There isn't enough snow to ski on.

not + adjective + enough + to-infinitive
You're not old enough to have grand-
children!

The zero infinitive is used:

a. after most auxiliaries (e.g. must, can, should, may, might)

b. after verbs of perception, (e.g. see, hear, feel) with the pattern verb +
object + zero infinitive

c. after the verbs 'make' and 'let', with the pattern make/let + object + zero
infinitive

d. after the expression 'had better'

e. after the expression 'would rather'
when referring to the speaker's own actions

Examples:

After auxiliaries:

• She can't speak to you.
 
•  He should give her some money.
 
•  Shall I talk to him?
 
•  Would you like a cup of coffee?
 
•  I might stay another night in the hotel.
 
•  They must leave before 10.00 a.m.

After verbs of perception:

• He saw her fall from the cliff.
 
•  We heard them close the door.
 
•  They saw us walk toward the lake.
 
•  She felt the spider crawl up her leg.

After the verbs 'make' and 'let':

• Her parents let her stay out late.
 
•  Let's go to the cinema tonight.
 
•  You made me love you.
 
•  Don't make me study that boring grammar book!

NOTICE that the 'to-infinitive' is used when 'make' is in the passive voice:

• I am made to sweep the floor every day.
 
•  She was made to eat fish even though she hated it.

After 'had better':
             We had better take some warm clothing.
             She had better ask him not to come.
             You'd better not smile at a crocodile!
             We had better reserve a room in the hotel.
             You'd better give me your address.
             They had better work harder on their grammar!

After 'would rather':

Note: this is ONLY when referring to the speaker's own actions - see 'would
      rather' in section on Unreal past.

THE INFINITIVE
1. Form
The infinitive is the base form of a verb. It may be preceded by 'to' (the to-
infinitive) or stand alone (the base or zero infinitive).

2. Infinitive with or without 'to'

The to-infinitive is used:

a. after certain verbs. e.g. want, wish, agree, fail, mean, decide, learn
b. after the auxiliaries to be to, to have to, and ought to
c. in the pattern 'it is + adjective + to-infinitive'

Examples:

with 'to'

• The elephant decided to marry the mouse
      
•       The mouse agreed to marry the elephant
      
•       You will have to ask her
      
•       You are to leave immediately
      
•       He ought to relax
      
•       She has to go to Berlin next week
      
•       It's easy to speak English
      
•       It is hard to change jobs after twenty years
      
•       It's stupid to believe everything you hear

without 'to'

• I would rather visit Rome.
      
•       She would rather live in Italy.
      
•       Would you rather eat steak or fish?
      
•       He would rather work in a bank.
      
•       I'd rather be a forest than a tree.

THE 'ZERO' CONDITIONAL
1. Form

In 'zero' conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the
simple present:


'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION)                MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present                    simple present
If you heat ice                        it melts.
If it rains                            you get wet


NOTE: The order of the clauses is not fixed - the 'if' clause can be first or
second:

• Ice melts if you heat it.
      
•       You get wet if it rains.

 2. Function

In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and
possible. They are used to make statements about the real world, and often
refer to general truths, such as scientific facts.

Examples:

a. If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.
b. Plants die if they don't get enough water.
c. If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.
d. If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars.
e. If you mix red and blue, you get purple.

This structure is often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the
main clause:

• If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema.

• Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.

THE INFINITIVE

VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
C. These are the most common of the verbs followed by a to-infinitive, with
or without a noun.

Example:

• I asked him to show me the book.
      
• I asked to see the book.

     ask*                         expect*
                                  help
     beg*
     choose                       mean* (=intend)
     dare                         request*
     desire*                      want
     elect                        wish*


The verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause

Note:

dare: In negative and interrogative sentences the infinitive with or without
'to' is possible, though it is more common to omit the 'to':

• I never dared tell him what happened.
      
•       Dare you tell him the news?
      
•       Would you dare (to) jump out of a plane?

Examples:

• We've chosen John to represent the company at the conference.
      
•       The elephant didn't mean to tread on the mouse.
      
•       We expect you to do your best in the exam.
      
•       Do you want to go to the beach?
      
•       Do you want me to go with you to the beach?
      
•       You are requested to be quiet in this library.

THE INFINITIVE

VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
A. The to-infinitive is used after the verbs in this group, without a
preceding noun. The verbs marked * can also be followed by a 'that-clause'

Example:


     VERB                   TO-INFINITIVE
     I hope...              to see you next week.
                            THAT- CLAUSE
     I hope...              that I'll see you next week

     afford                   fail                      promise*
     agree*                   guarantee*                propose
                              happen 
     aim                                                prove (= turn out)
     appear                   hasten                    refuse resolve*
     arrange*                 have (= be obliged)       seek
                                                        seem 
     bother                   hesitate
     care                     hope*                     strive
     claim*                   learn                     swear*
     condescend               long                      tend
     consent                  manage                    threaten*
                              offer
     decide*                                            trouble
                              prepare
     demand*                                            undertake
                              pretend*                  volunteer
     determine*
                              proceed
     endeavour                                          vow*


These verbs can only be followed by a 'that-clause' when they have the
subject 'it'. e.g. It appeared that no-one had locked the door.

Examples:

• He claimed to be an expert.
      
•       I managed to reach the top of the hill.
      
•       I know you're only pretending to love me!
      
•       Don't pretend that you know the answer.
      
•       She failed to explain the problem clearly.
      
•       The customs man demanded to search our luggage.
      
•       I can't afford to go out tonight.

THE INFINITIVE

VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
B. These are the most common of the verbs that are normally followed by a
noun + infinitive. The verbs marked * may also be followed by a 'that-
clause'.

Example:

VERB                         INFINITIVE
                   NOUN
He reminded        me        to buy some eggs.
                             THAT-CLAUSE
He reminded        me        that I had to buy some eggs.

accustom        entitle                          order*
aid             entreat                          persuade*
appoint         force                            press
assist          get                              prompt
cause           implore*                         provoke
challenge       incite                           remind*
command*        induce                           require*
defy            inspire                          stimulate
direct*         instruct*                        summon
drive           invite                           teach
empower         lead                             tell
enable          leave (make someone responsible) tempt
encourage       oblige                           trust*
entice                                           warn*

Notes:

command, direct, entreat, implore, order, require, trust:
there is no noun between these verbs and a 'that-clause':

• The general commanded his men to surrender.
 
•  The general commanded that his men should surrender.

persuade and remind:
there is always a noun between these verbs and a 'that-clause':

• You can't persuade people to buy small cars.
 
•  You can't persuade people that small cars are better.

instruct, teach, warn:
the noun is optional between these verbs and a 'that-clause':

• She taught her students to appreciate poetry.
 
•  She taught her students that poetry was valuable.
 
•  She taught that poetry was valuable.

Examples:

• The professor challenged his students to argue with his theory.
      
•       This law empowers the government to charge more taxes.
      
•       You can't force me to do something I don't agree with.
      
•       You are obliged to drive on the left in England.
      
•       I invited the new student to have dinner with me.
      
•       What inspired you to write this poem?
      
•       The elephant told the mouse to climb up his tail.

THE INFINITIVE

INFINITIVE AFTER QUESTION WORDS
These verbs: ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, understand,
can be followed by a question word such as where, how, what, who, when
or 'whether' + the 'to-infinitive'.

Examples:

• She asked me how to use the washing machine.
      
•       Do you understand what to do?
      
•       Tell me when to press the button.
      
•       I've forgotten where to put this little screw.
      
•       I can't decide whether to wear the red dress or the black one.

The question word Why is followed by the zero infinitive in suggestions:

Examples:

• Why   wait until tomorrow?
      
• Why   not ask him now?
      
• Why   walk when we can go in the car?
      
• Why   not buy a new bed for your bedroom?
      
• Why   leave before the end of the game?
      
• Why   not spend a week in Beirut and a week in Baghdad?

THE INFINITIVE

NEGATIVE INFINITIVE
To form the negative infinitive, place not before the to- or zero infinitive:
e.g. not to worry:

It's hard not to worry about exams.

Examples:

• I decided not to go to London.
      
• He asked me not to be late.
      
• Elephants ought not to marry mice.
      
• You'd better not smile at the crocodile.
      
• I'd rather not eat meat.

THE INFINITIVE

OTHER FORMS
The infinitive can have the following forms:

• The   perfect infinitive
 
• The   continuous infinitive
 
• The   perfect continuous infinitive
 
• The   passive infinitive

NOTE: as with the present infinitive, there are situations where the to is
omitted, e.g. after most modal auxiliaries.

The perfect infinitive:
to have + past participle, e.g. to have broken, to have
seen, to have saved.

This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional
sentences, using the conditional perfect, e.g. If I had known
you were coming I would have baked a cake.

Examples:

• Someone must have broken the window and climbed in.
• I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in India.
• He pretended to have seen the film.
• If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it.

The continuous infinitive:
to be + present participle, e.g.to be swimming, to be
joking, to be waiting

Examples:

• I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right now.

• You must be joking!

• I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened.


The perfect continuous infinitive:
to have been + present participle

Examples:

to have been crying
to have been waiting
to have been painting

• The woman seemed to have been crying.
      
• You must have been waiting for hours!
      
• He pretended to have been painting all day.

The passive infinitive:
to be + past participle, e.g. to be given, to be shut, to be
opened

Examples:

• I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.
      
• These doors should be shut.
      
• This window ought to be opened.