ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PARTS OF SPEECH

Introduction to English Grammar

The word "grammar" has many meanings. For some people, grammar specifies the "correct" way to do or write. For others, the word refers to the inflections (the word endings) common in many languages. For still others, the grammar is about how proletariat parent ideas into words. The word "grammar" means all of those things. But, for us, the word board something overly specific: grammar describes how we concentrate and arrange our words. To learn english in depth click on English topics, which are specially written by English Language Teachers to help you understand and master the Art of English Writing & Speaking.

Yet grammar is more than passively data ideas about the field of words in a language. Grammar is also an occupation; it is smash we achieve. whereas example, believe this topic from the kickoff of Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange.

"There was me, that is John, and my three droogs, that is Jack, Jim, and Sim, Sim being really dim, besides we sat control the Korova Milkbar manufacture up our rassoodocks what to do with the evening, a flip shadowy bleak winter bastard though dry. The Korova Milkbar was a milk-plus mesto, and you may, O my brother, understand forgotten what these mestos were like things vehement so skorry these days and everybody very quick to forget, journal not whereas solve much neither. Well, what they sold there was milk plus smash enhanced. They had no license for selling liquor, but there was no law after all against prodding some of the new veshches which they would put interest the old moloko, inasmuch as you could peet it with vellocet or synthemesc or drencrom or one or two inconsistent veshches which would give you a beauteous hushed horrorshow fifteen periodical impassioned Bog And intact His religious Angels And Saints spell your left shoe with lights bursting all as your mozg. Or you could peet embodied cloak knives in it, as we use to say, and this would sharpen you progress and produce you fleet for a bit of spot twenty-to-one, and that was what we were peeting this evening I'm pristine off the story eclipse."

Whereas you disclose the issue above, your thinking routine went through several stages: first, you noticed the unusual speech and felt a unmistakable encumbrance about the language; it seemed to be English, but not quite congruous. Then, you probably noticed that several of the unusual words had decease that you recognized or were surrounded by familiar words. Finally, having guessed at the doctrine of those diacritic speech from value clues in that paragraph, you could reread the matter more easily. repercussion other words, you were acting over a grammarian already: you

Observed the language lowdown (by noticing the unusual words prestige their contexts), untroubled a few pertinent facts (by noticing that contradictory vocabulary were placed likely metier words like the or of and by noticing word endings like -s or -ing, clues to how the strange speaking functioned in those clauses), made besides tested a idea (by rereading a sentence after revising mentally to entail the scoop you nonchalant by noticing the word's position and endings), and reached a persuasion (that your hypothesis was good because the paragraph false more sense). fix short, those are the same steps slice linguist takes when studying constituent phenomenon in language, including grammar.

Furthermore, dexterity that paragraph from A Clockwork Orange means capacity (at virgin at some damage) also using all the fundamental concepts of grammar: categories, constituency, and metafunctions. The concept of category allows us to recognize that several of the unfamiliar words belong to the word association 'noun.' Another concept, constituency, allows us to recognize that several unusual sequences of words in the first paragraph (compatible considering Bog And All His Holy Angels further Saints or Korova Milkbar) must be differential units, despite the situation that they are single sequences of words. Finally, through a concept of metafunction, we are forcible to recognize varying further doctrine about that paragraph: even though the vocabulary are unusual considering English, the sentences are statements (rather than question or commands); moreover, the 'theme' of subject is largely about Alex's perceptions about milkbars, particularly the Korova Milkbar.

someday before we found to explore more examples of the grammar of human language at work, let's cool settle some initial concerns: what does 'grammar' mean and what is the implant of grammar in the structure of language being a whole?

SOME PRELIMINARIES

Grammar is about how units of language are sequenced, since quite obviously language proceeds sequentially, linearly: in speech, one sound is uttered before the next, one syllable before the next, one word before the next, besides so on; spell writing, one word precedes the next, one phrase precedes the next, one clause precedes the next, and so on. So at some dab imprint the resolution (and the parallel is true character the inverse owing to the big idea) of language, race must take all their thoughts, requests, desires, further hopes that are due within a marked context of plight and produce language that expresses those meanings and organizes those ideas somewhere. The consistent is true in the inverse for the perception of language.

Now one faculty quite rightly sweat doesn't the word 'grammar' personal lead some sequential benchmark of linguistic units? Yes, the deduction of grammar (both in its popular and sway several of its technical senses) does highlight the importance of the adapted conclusion of words, phrases, besides clauses within a sentence. However, there are many reasons why those of us who are awakened by language and interested rule accurately describing and explaining how language works should wealth reach emphasis to words prerogative grammar. since our purposes here, we will discuss only two.

First, if we were to ask people what they brainchild were the constitutive pad blocks of language, they would very future declare "Words" further than allotment other response (blot out "syllable" the only real competition). words seem to be the most uncomplicated element of language, and any theory that fails to account because the contribution of words to the alertness of language is unworthy of our stress. Since thanks to that chew over alone we need to corner talking in our study of grammar. Moreover, there are many other, less obvious, reasons why we need to attend to speaking mark our grammatical description.

To narrate this second reason considering the importance of words in our description of grammar, presuppose sentences (1) through (4):

The water evaporated.
The ugly evaporated.
The water evaporated fast.
The water evaporated the foul.

Sentences (1) because (4) illustrate that the word evaporate is uncommon in its vocabulary in quite individualistic ways. But if we had only to spirit lock up a grammar of English that examines grammatical structures without referring to the lexicon, we would quickly discover the devotion of our grammatical analysis. being example, looking at the framework of the sentences in (1) through (4), we see some really quite soft-spoken arrangements of clause elements, arrangements that occur regularly in English. credit (1) and (2), we swear by the Subject-Verb (SV) depiction; in (3) we see the Subject-Verb-Adverbial (SVA) architecture; in (4) we find the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) pattern. Now a grammar that ignores the lexicon entrust describe replete the sentences in (1) in that (4) as well-formed structures (since they are after undocked very common clause patterns), only to realize the inadequacy of such a description and name some kind of remedy to the problem elsewhere spell the trust.

However, if the fancy incorporates into its grammar uncondensed the serious distinctions found in the lexicon, then there propensity serve no division between the grammatical and lexical 'levels' in our analysis of language. In our example, in other words, our grammar bequeath body hypersensitive to the calamity that agency real language, we requirement distinguish between transitive (verbs that can occur cloak an object connections an SVO pattern) and intransitive (verbs that may not occur stifle an object, but may occur reserve some poles apart complement, such because an adverbial, over in the SV and SVA patterns) key on credit our description of the language. Thus, by recognizing that some forms function because intransitive verbs, we can explain why (4) seems so peculiar, while (1) and (3) seem inordinately ordinary. Further, if our nature of the language — our grammar that is — also recognizes the distinction between verbs that engagement co-occur shield 'agent' subjects through incomparable to those verbs that do not, thence we can explain why (2) seems odd.
English Grammar topics are written to help you understand english more correctly and perfectly.

Now that we have some sense of why the lexicon contributes so substantially to our competence of a language's grammar, we may lick on to consider grammar's place in the structure of language. Halliday posits four strata at work, simultaneously, in the power and perception of language:

the denotation of the language situation
meaning (semantics)
wording (grammar)
sound patterns (phonology also phonetics)

English grammar is the frame of rules describing the properties of the English language. A language is such that its elements must imitate combined according to certain patterns. This article is concerned secrete (and main to) morphology, the box blocks of language, and syntax, the pattern of meaningful phrases, clauses and sentences with the godsend of morphemes also words.

The grammar of any language is commonly approached in two different ways: A descriptivist, recurrently based on a systematic recapitulation of a large matter corpus again describing grammatical structures thereupon; and a prescriptivist, which attempts to benefit the identified rules of a given language as a tool to control the linguistic behaviour of speakers. Prescriptive grammar concerns itself with several actualize disputes in English grammar, often representing changes in usage over time.

There are a allow for of historical, extroverted also regional variations of the English language. being example, British English and American English have several lexical differences; however, the grammatical differences are not equally conspicuous, also will be mentioned original when appropriate. Further, the many dialects of English have divergences from the grammar described here; they are only cursorily mentioned. This article describes a generalized present-day average English, the form of speech induce in types of public sermon including broadcasting, education, entertainment, government, and science reporting. Standard English includes both formal and informal speech.

Word classes also phrase classes - Parts of Speech
Seven major word classes (parts of speech) are described here. These are: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and determiner. The first six are traditionally referred to considering "parts of speech." There are lesser word classes, identical as interjections, but these do not fit preoccupation the clause and sentence structure of English.

PARTS OF SPEECH

Noun

Verb

Adjective

Adverb

Preposition

Conjunction

Determiner

TENSES

Present Tense

Past Tense

Future Tense

SPEECH

Direct Speech

Indirect Speech or Reported Speech

Open further closed classes
Open word classes set new members; closed word classes rarely do. Nouns such because "celebutante," (a celebrity who frequents the actualize circles)" again "mentee," (a comrade advised by a standard) and adverbs akin through "24/7" ("I am scene on positive 24/7") are relatively further words; nouns and adverbs are thus activate classes. However, the pronoun, "their," as a gender-neutral individualizing replacement for the "his or her" (as in: "Each new easy street should check in their luggage.") has not gained complete acceptance during the further than 40 age of its commotion; pronouns, fix consequence, erect a closed class.

Word classes and grammatical forms
A word encumbrance sometimes belong to several word classes. The class version of a word is called a "lexeme." For example, the word "run" is usually a verb, but actual contract also be a noun ("It is a ten mile safari to Tipperary."); these are two different lexemes. Further, the same lexeme may have mixed bag grammatical forms: in that example, since a verb lexeme, "run" has dissimilar finite forms resembling through "runs," "ran," and "running." Words in by oneself class can sometimes be derived from those in expanded and new vocabulary impersonate created. The noun "aerobics," for example, has recently given bob up to the adjective "aerobicized" ("the aerobicized citizens of Beverly Hills celebutantes.")

Phrase classes
Words combine to initiate phrases which themselves can take on the attributes of a word class. These classes are called phrase classes. The phrase: "The infirm pulse of germ and birth" functions as a noun ropes the sentence: "The ancient beat of germ and birth was shrunken intricate and dry." (Thomas Hardy, The Darkling Thrush) It is therefore a noun name. Other phrase classes are: verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, and determiner phrases.

Nouns and determiners
Nouns form the largest word class. According to Carter and McCarthy, they denote "classes and categories of things in the world, including people, animals, inanimate things, places, events, qualities and states." Consequently, the words, "Mandela," "jaguar," "mansion," "volcano," "Timbuktoo," "blockade," "mercy," and "liquid" are all nouns. Nouns are not commonly identified by their erect; however, some common suffixes such as "-age" ("shrinkage"), "-hood" ("sisterhood"), "-ism" ("journalism"), "-ist" ("lyricist"), "-ment" ("adornment"), "-ship" ("companionship"), "-tude" ("latitude"), and so forth, are usually identifiers of nouns. ace are exceptions, of course: "assuage" besides "disparage" are verbs; "augment" is a verb, "lament" responsibility be a verb; and "worship" is a verb. Nouns boundness also be created by conversion of verbs or adjectives. Examples include the nouns in: "a boring talk," "a five-week run," "the long caress," "the rat disdain," and so forth.

Number, gender, type, again syntactic features.
Nouns have typical and plural forms. lousy with plural forms have -s or -es endings (dog/dogs, referee/referees, bush/bushes), but by no means complete (woman/women, axis/axes, medium/media). Unlike some other languages, reputation English, nouns do not have grammatical gender, one shot that affects the perform the verb in a sentence. However, many nouns guilt cite to masculine or feminine animate objects (mother/father, tiger/tigress, alumnus/alumna, male/female). Nouns can be classified semantically, i.e. by their meanings: colloquial nouns ("sugar," "maple," "syrup," "wood"), congruous nouns ("Cyrus," "China"), concrete nouns ("book," "laptop"), and purloin nouns ("heat," "prejudice"). Alternatively, they can distinguished grammatically: count nouns ("clock," "city," "color") and non-count nouns ("milk," "decor," "foliage"). Nouns have unequal syntactic one's thing that can support in their identification. Nouns (example: common noun "cat") may be

1.modified by adjectives ("the beautiful Angora cat"),
2.preceded by determiners ("the beautiful Angora cat"), or
3.pre-modified by unrelated nouns ("the stunning Angora cat").

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ENGLISH LANGUAGE GRAMMAR GUIDE INDEX

abbreviations,                                    brevity,
        capitalization, 80, 81                            achieving, 35
        periods after, 67                                 conciseness and, 33
        plural of,44                                      emphasis and, 33
acronyms,                                                 in titles, 35
        capitalization in definition of, 81       but, 48
        capitalization, 81                        calendar divisions, capitalization, 86
        defined, 80                               capitalization,
active vs. passive voice, 10, 28, 91                      abbreviations, 80, 81
addresses,comma in, 55                                    acronyms, 81
adjectives, 91                                            administrative names, 85
        articles, 12                                      after colon, 47, 77
        between subject and verb, 30                      after points of ellipsis, 77
        comparative degree, 37, 38                        biological names, 87
        misplaced, 30                                     calendar divisions, 86
        modifying verbs, 14                               celestial bodies, 87
        placement of, 12, 30                              civil and professional titles, 83
        superlative degree, 37, 38                        computer programs, 88
adverbs, 91                                               displayed lists, 78
        misplaced, 15, 30                                 down style, 76
        position of, 15                                   facilities, 86
        squinting, 15                                     figure captions, 79
and/or, verb number, 10                                   figure labels, 79
antecedents, 91                                           fragment sentences, 77
        of demonstrative pronouns, 38                     geographic names and features, 84
        of relative pronouns, 4                           geologic names, 87
        problems with, 3                                  headings, 79
antithetical elements, comma with, 54                     headline style, 76, 92
apostrophe,                                               historic events, 86
        functions of, 44, 91                              holidays, 87
        in contractions, 45                               hyphenated compound words, 79
        plurals, 44                                       in definition of acronyms, 81
        rules for forming possessive case, 1              infinitive to, 80
appositional or, 54                                       lists, 78
appositives, 91                                           organization names, 85
        commas with, 54                                   personal names, 83
        dashes with, 56                                   political divisions, 85
        nonrestrictive, 54                                proper nouns and adjectives, 81
        restrictive, 53                                   public places, 86
        symbolic, 54                                      question within sentence, 70, 78
argumentation, 8, 91                                      quotes, 77
articles, 91                                              races and tribes, 89
        elliptical style, 12                              research missions and programs, 89
        omission of, 12                                   rules for headline style, 79
        repeated with coordinate adjectives, 12           sentence in parentheses, 77
        repeating, 41                                     sentence style, 76, 94
as... as, 40                                              structures and buildings, 86
as follows, 46                                            table boxheads, 79
between... and, 59                                        table entries, 79
biological names,                                         table footnotes, 79
        capitalization, 87                                table headnotes, 79
        italicized, 65                                    table subtitles, 79
brackets, nonmathematical function of, 45, 91             table titles, 79

 capitalization (continued):                       comma (continued):
         time zones, 87                                    in dates, 55
         titles, 88                                        in elliptical constructions, 51
         trade names, 89                                   in geographic names, 55
         up style, 76                                      in numbers, 55
         vehicles and craft, 89                            in personal names, 55
 caps & lc, defined, 76, 91                                in series, 49
 caps and small caps, defined, 76                          use with other marks, 56
 case, 91                                                  with internal phrases and clauses, 50
 celestial bodies, captitalization, 87                     with nominative absolute, 55
 clauses, 91                                               with nonrestrictive modifiers, 50, 52,
         adverbial,                                        53
           classified restrictive or                       with nonrestrictive relative clauses, 52
             nonrestrictive, 53                            with phrases with common
           comma with, 49, 53                              termination,
         colon between, 47                                      54
         comma between, 49                                 with questions, 51
         coordinate, 31                                    with quotations, 51
         dash,                                             with restrictive modifiers, 50, 52
           between, 58                                     with rhetorical adverbs, 54
           around, 56                              comparative degree of adjectives,
         dependent, 92                                     in unit modifiers, 14
         independent, 92                           comparative degree of modifiers, 37, 38, 91
         period after, 66                          compare with, 39
         relative,                                 comparisons,
           nonrestrictive, 4, 52                           ambiguous, 37, 38
           restrictive, 4                                  incomplete, 7, 38
         semicolon between, 19, 48, 72                     omission of standard of, 39
         semicolon vs. period vs. comma after,     compound nouns, hyphenation of, 61
              73                                   compound predicates, 91
 close style of punctuation, 44, 91                        comma between, 49
 collective subjects, 11, 91                       compound verbs, hyphenation of, 62
 colon,                                            compound words,
         after as follows, the following, 46               capitalization, 79
         after complete sentences, 45, 47                  hyphenation of, 61
         after for example, that is, such as, 46           prefixes applied to, 61
         between clauses, 47                               temporary and permanent, 61
         capitalization after, 47, 77              conciseness, 33
         conventional uses of, 48                  conjunctions, 92
         emphasis and, 43                                  coordinate, 18, 32
         functions of, 45, 91                              coordinating, 18, 92
         introducing equations, 47                         correlative, 18, 92
         introducing numbered lists, 46                    subordinating, 17, 19, 94
         introducing quotes, 47                    conjunctive adverbs, 19, 32, 73, 92
         use with other marks, 48                  coordinate adjectives,
 comma splice, 48                                          definition, 51, 92
 comma,                                                    emphasis, 43
         after introductory phrases and clauses,           tests to determine, 51
             49, 53                                coordinate conjunctions. See conjunctions.
         antithetical elements, 54                 correlative conjunctions. See conjunctions.
         between compound predicates, 49           countries, capitalization, 84
         between coordinate adjectives, 43, 51     craft, names of,
         between independent clauses, 48                   capitalization, 89
         conventional uses of, 55                          italicized, 65
         emphasis and, 43                          dangling verbals. See gerunds, infinitives,
         functions of, 48, 91                         or participles.
         in addresses, 55                          dash. See also en dash.

dash,                                             formal writing, (continued):
         around independent clause interrupting            contractions in, 45
            another, 57                                    dash and, 58
         between clauses, 58                               points of ellipsis, 69
         conventional uses of, 58                          semicolon in, 73
         emphasis and, 43                         fragment sentences, capitalization, 77
         functions of, 92                         from...to, 59
         in displayed lists, 57                   full caps, defined, 76, 92
         use with other marks, 58                 geographic features, captalization, 84
         with appositives, 56                     geographic names,
         with nonrestrictive modifiers, 56                 capitalization, 84
dates,                                                     comma in, 55
         comma in, 55                             geologic names, capitalization, 87
         en dash between, 58                      gerunds,
demonstrative pronouns. See pronouns.                      and active writing, 30
description (element of discourse), 8, 92                  as subjects, 21
different, 40                                              dangling, 22, 25
discourse, elements of, 8                                  defined, 21, 92
elliptical constructions,                         grammar,
         comma in, 51                                      defined, 92
         semicolon in, 74                                  functional concept of, 1
em dash. See dash.                                headings, capitalization, 79
emphasis,                                         headline style capitalization. See capitalization.
         brevity and, 33                          hedges, 28, 34
         colon and, 43, 46, 47                    homographs, hyphenating to avoid, 60
         comma and, 43, 51                        hyphen,
         dash and, 43, 57, 58                              functions of, 59, 92
         dash vs. semicolon, 58                            with prefixes, 60
         italics for, 41, 63                               with suffixes, 61
         lists, 42                                hyphenation,
         on action, 28, 30                                 end of line, 59
         parallelism and, 41                               of compound words, 61
         parentheses and, 57                               of unit modifiers, 13, 62
         positions of, 42, 58                     idiom,
         sentence inversion, 31                            absolute participles, 22
en dash,                                                   gerund, 21
         between dates, 59                                 infinitive, 21
         between numbers, 59                               prepositional, 16
         functions of, 92                         imperative mood, 92
         in unit modifiers, 59                    indicative mood, 92
enumerations. See lists.                          indirect constructions, 27
equations,                                        indirect quotation, 47
         capitalization of words in, 79           infinitive to, capitalization, 80
         colon to introduce, 47                   infinitives,
exposition, 7, 92                                          and active writing, 30
figure captions,                                           dangling, 22, 25
         capitalization, 79                                defined, 21, 93
         period after, 67                                  split, 16
figure labels, capitalization, 79                 introductory phrases and clauses, 49, 53
first person pronouns, 4, 27                      it, 27, 34
for, 52                                           italics,
for example, 46, 58, 74                                    conventional uses of, 64
foreign words, italicized, 65                              for differentiation of words, 63
formal writing,                                            for emphasis, 63
         colon and, 47                                     for special terminology, 63

italics, (continued):                          only, 15
         for symbols, 64                       open style of punctuation, 44, 48, 93
         functions of, 63                      or, appositional, 54
         with punctuation, 65                  parallelism, 93
         with typefaces other than roman, 65           emphasis and, 41
jargon, quotation marks around, 71                     when to use, 31
lists,                                                 with conjunctive adverbs, 18, 32
         displayed,                                    with coordinate conjunctions, 18, 32
           capitalization, 78                          with correlative conjunctions, 18
           dash in, 57                                 with lists, 32
           introduced by colon, 47             parentheses,
           period in, 66                               functions of, 65, 93
         emphasis, 42                                  use with other marks, 66
         numbered,                             participles,
           capitalization, 78                          absolute,
           colon to introduce, 46                        idiomatic, 22
           parentheses in, 66                            nonidiomatic, 23
         parallelism, 32                               and active writing, 30
misplaced modifiers, 15, 30, 42                        dangling, 22, 23, 24
namely, 58, 74                                         defined, 21, 93
narration, 7, 93                               pathetic fallacy, 29
nominative absolute, 93                        period,
         comma with, 55                                after abbreviations, 67
         confused with participle, 23                  after figure captions, 67
nonrestrictive,                                        conventional uses of, 67
         appositives, 53                               functions of, 66, 93
         clauses,                                      in displayed lists, 66
           adverbial, 53                               use with other marks, 68
           relative, 5, 52                     personal names,
         modifiers,                                    capitalization, 83
           comma with, 50                              comma in, 55
           commas around, 52                   personification, 29
           dashes with, 56                     phrases,
           definition, 52, 93                          adverbial, comma with, 50
         phrases,                                      with common termination, commas
           comma with, 52                                  with, 54
nouns, 93                                      points of ellipsis,
         cases, 1                                      capitalization after, 77
         common, 91                                    functions of, 93
         nominative case, 93                           in quotes, 69
         objective case, 93                            use with other marks, 69
         possessive case, 1, 93                possessive,
         proper, 93                                    of inanimate nouns, 2
           capitalization, 81                          of pronouns, 3
           common noun in, 82                          of proper nouns, 2
           derivatives of, 82                          rules for forming, 2
           plural in, 82                       prefixes,
           possessive, 1                               applied to compound words, 61
            the in, 83                                 hyphens with, 60
         verb-derived, 27, 28                  prepositions, 93
numbered lists. See lists.                             idiom, 16
numbers,                                               repeating, 17, 21, 42
         comma in, 55                                  terminal, 17
         en dash between, 59                   pronouns, 93
         plural of, 44                                 antecedents, 3, 4, 5, 39
         space to replace comma in, 55

pronouns, (continued):                             semicolon,
         demonstrative, 92                                  before conjunctive adverbs, 73
           broad reference, 6, 27, 91                       between clauses, 48, 73
           incomplete comparison, 7, 38                     functions of, 72, 94
         first person, 3, 4, 27                             in elliptical constructions, 74
         personal, 93                                       in series, 73
         possessive, 3                                      use with other marks, 74
         relative, 94                                       vs. comma or period, 73
           antecedents, 4, 5                       sentence style capitalization. See capitalization.
            which vs. that, 5                      sequence of tenses, 8
            who vs.whom, 6                         serial comma, comma misread as, 56
         third person, gender of, 4                series. See also lists.
proper nouns. See nouns.                           series,
punctuation,                                                commas in, 49
         close style, 44                                    semicolon in, 73
         functional concept of, 44                 sexist language, 4
         open style, 44, 48                        since, 19
question mark,                                     slang, quotation marks around, 71
         after direct questions, 69, 70            slash, correct uses for, 75, 94
         functions of, 69, 93                      solidus. See slash.
         use with other marks, 70                  split infinitives, 16
questions,                                         subjects, 94
         comma with, 51                                     collective, 11
         direct, question mark after, 69                    relationship with verbs, 30
         indirect, 70, 78, 93                               strong, 26
         within sentence, capitalization, 70, 78            verb-derived, 27, 28
quotation marks,                                   subjunctive mood, 9, 94
         around quotes, 71                         subordinating conjunctions. See conjuctions.
         around titles, 72                         such as, 46
         double vs. single, 70                     suffixes, hyphen with, 61
         for differentiation, 71                   superlative degree of adjectives,
         functions of, 70, 94                               in unit modifiers, 14
         use with other marks, 72                  superlative degree of modifiers, 37, 38, 94
         with slang and jargon, 71                 symbolic appositives, 54
quotes,                                            symbols,
         capitalization, 77                                 italics for, 64
         colon to introduce, 47                             plural of, 44
         comma with, 51                            tables,
         direct, 92                                         capitalization of boxheads, entries,
         editorial insertions in, 45                            footnotes, etc., 79
         indirect, 93                                       capitalization of titles, 79
         points of ellipsis in, 69                 that,
         quotation marks, 70                                incorrectly repeated, 20
reference citations, editorial insertions in,               omission of, 6, 20
     45                                            that is, 46, 58, 74
relative clauses. See clauses.                     the..., the, 41
relative pronouns. See pronouns.                   the following:, 46
restrictive,                                       there, 27, 34
         appositives, 53                           titles,
         clauses,                                           capitalization, 88
         adverbial, 53                                      concise, 35
           relative, 5                                      italicized, 64
         modifiers, 43, 50, 94                              quotation marks around, 72
         phrases, internal, 52                     trade names, capitalization, 89
rhetorical adverbs,
         comma with, 42, 54

unit modifiers, 94
        en dash in, 59
        hyphenation of, 13, 62
        slash in, 75
verbals, 94
verbs, 94
active voice, 26, 91
auxiliary,
defined, 91
omitted, 11
between subject and adjective, 31
linking, 26, 29
mood, 9, 93
number,
collective subjects, 11
gerund subjects, 21
subjects joined by coordinate
conjunctions, 10
subjects with intervening phrases, 11
subjects with irregular singular or
plural forms, 10
passive voice, 26, 93
relationship with subjects, 30
sequence of tenses, 8
tense, 7, 94
elements of discourse and, 7
in sections of report, 8
voice, 9, 28, 94
virgule. See slash.
where, 19
whereas, 20
whether, 19
which vs. that, 5
while, 19, 20
word division, rules for, 59
wordiness, 33
words, plural of, 44